Anthropology-Scope and Value

Anthropology-Scope and Value

Anthropology is usually classified as a social science along with disciplines such as sociology, economics, political science and psychology but it has much in common with natural sciences like biology and geology as also with religion and art in the field of humanities. The diverse field of anthropology has broader scope than other social sciences. Anthropologists are interested in all human beings and their different aspects such as skin color, kinship system, religious beliefs, technologies and other aspects of life.
In physical anthropology ,investigation of the evolution of the human species, physical variations among different human groups and anatomy of monkeys, apes and humans are studied.Primatology is a line of specialization within anthropology and it specializes in the evolution,anatomy,adaptation and social behaviour of primates which constitutes the taxonomic order including humans.Anthropogists studying the variation in the human beings seek to measure and explain the similarities and differences among the people of the world.
Archaeology studies the human past on the basis of examination of the material remains of the past in order to understand human life has changed over centuries. Cultural anthropology also known as ethnology involves the study of historically recent and contemporary human cultures and societies. They study a wide range of subjects of which some main are -

1. Study and preparation of reports about the ways of life of particular human societies.
2. Comparison of diverse cultures to understand their common features and influences operating on the cultures.
3. Understanding the mutual relationship and influence of the various aspects of like economics, family life, religion and art etc.

Ethnology helps people to understand and appreciate cultural differences in the increasing multi-cultural world. The ethnologists move into the community to study, live in close contact with the people and communicate with them in the local language to gain firsthand knowledge.
Anthropological linguistics involves description and analysis of sound patterns, words, meanings and sentence structures of human languages. Cultural anthropologists try to understand how language and culture influence each other.
Medical anthropologists investigate interaction among human health, nutrition, social environment and cultural beliefs and practices. Development anthropology is a field in which anthropologists apply their expertise to the study of human problem.

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives. From concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of society and social behavior, sociologists study everything from specific events (the micro level of analysis of small social patterns) to the “big picture” (the macro level of analysis of large social patterns).

The pioneering European sociologists, however, also offered a broad conceptualization of the fundamentals of society and its workings. Their views form the basis for today's theoretical perspectives, or paradigms, which provide sociologists with an orienting framework—a philosophical position—for asking certain kinds of questions about society and its people.
Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior .

TABLE 1 Sociological Perspectives Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus 1. Symbolic Interactionism Micro Use of symbols; Face-to-face interactions 2. Functionalism Macro Relationship between the parts of society; How aspects of society are functional (adaptive) 3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources; How the elite control the poor and weak

The symbolic interactionist perspective

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863–1931) introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation especially evident. The words have a certain meaning for the “sender,” and, during effective communication, they hopefully have the same meaning for the “receiver.” In other terms, words are not static “things”; they require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. Of course, anything can serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself. Written music serves as an example. The black dots and lines become more than mere marks on the page; they refer to notes organized in such a way as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic interactionists give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine what meanings individuals assign to their own actions and symbols, as well as to those of others.
Consider applying symbolic interactionism to the American institution of marriage. Symbols may include wedding bands, vows of life-long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding cake, a Church ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general meanings to these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what these and other symbols mean. For example, one of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as symbolizing “never ending love,” while the other may see them as a mere financial expense. Much faulty communication can result from differences in the perception of the same events and symbols.
Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social interpretation—the “big picture.” In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on the “trees” (for example, the size of the diamond in the wedding ring) rather than the “forest” (for example, the quality of the marriage). The perspective also receives criticism for slighting the influence of social forces and institutions on individual interactions.

The functionalist perspective

According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state, provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For example, during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment and inflation, social programs are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten their budgets. And a new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:

• Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone herds cattle or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity.
• In contrast, organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s.

The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert Merton (b. 1910), who divides human functions into two types: manifest functions are intentional and obvious, while latent functions are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church or synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function may be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense, manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions, which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach in functionalism is the consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts and the functions of the whole.
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such as divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.

The conflict perspective

The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for students.

Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.
Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order.

Defination and subfeilds of anthropology

Anthropology  is the academic study of humanity. It deals with all that is characteristic of the human experience, from physiology and the evolutionary origins to the social and cultural organization of human societies as well as individual and collective forms of human experience. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean humankind or humanity, and -logia  "discourse" or "study."
Anthropology's basic concerns are the definition of human life and origin, how social relations among humans are organized, who the ancestors of modern Homo sapiens are, what the characterizations of human physical traits are, how humans behave, why there are variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture and so forth

Subfields

anthropology is traditionally divided into four sub-fields, each with additional branches: biological or physical anthropology, social anthropology or cultural anthropology, archaeology and anthropological linguistics. These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology is also called socio-cultural anthropology or social anthropology (especially in the United Kingdom). It is the study of culture, and is based mainly on ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and a product of research, namely a monograph or book. As methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. 
The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of cultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Cultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language.

Physical anthropology

Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.

Archaeological anthropology

Archaeology is the study of human history and its artifacts. Archaeologists typically look at the material remains of human groups in order to find out how people lived. Pieces of pottery, tools and other artifacts that are left behind give clues about the social and cultural lives of past societies 

Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology  seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.

Sociology and its difference with other social sciences

Sociology and its difference with other social sciences —History, Political Science and Psychology

• Sociology & History(similarities)
  • History is the reconstruction of man’s past. It is study of the experience of man kind. It is a record of the human past.
  • Historian are interested in what happened at a particular time in the past.
  • Historian are only concentrate only on the past.
  History: History is a study of past, which people have already lived. Data for historian come in the form of records form museums, libraries and personal collection of people.
• • Sociology
  • Sociology as science of society on the other hand is interested in the present. It studies various stages of human life.
  • Sociology has thus to depend upon the history for its materials. e.g.
  • If he wants to study of marriage and family he must study their historical development also. Similarly he wants to know the impact of Islamic culture on the Hindu culture
• Difference between sociology & History
  • Sociology 
  •  
  • Sociology is interested in the study of present with all their complexity.
  • Sociology is relatively young social science. It has very short history of its own.
  • Sociology is an analytical science.
  • Sociology is generalizing science.
  • History 
  •  
  • History deals with the past events of man. It is silent regarding the present
  • History is an age-old social science. It has a long story of 2000 years or even more.
  • History is descriptive science.
  • History is an individualizing science.
• • Political Science 
  •  
  • Political science deals with political activities of man.
  • Political science has its own topics such as origin, evolution and functions of state, the forms of Government, types of constitutions, administration law, legislation, elections, voting, political movements.
  • Political science is concerned with state. There are some common topics of interest for both sociologist and political scientists. Such as war, mass movements, government control, public opinion, propaganda, leadership, elections, voting.
  • Further many social problems are also deep political problems (clashes of Muslims and Christians, Hindus and Muslims, Asian and Europeans.
• Difference between Sociology & Political Science
  • Sociology
  • Sociology is a science of society.
  • Sociology studies all kind of societies organized as well as un organized.
  • Sociology has a wider scope.
  • Sociology studies man as fundamentally a social animal.
  • The approach of sociology is sociological. It follows its own methods in addition to the scientific methods in its investigations.
  • Finally sociology is quite young. It is not even two centuries old.
  • Political Science
  • political science is a science of state and government.
  • Political science studies only the politically organized societies.
  • Political science has narrower field.
  • Political science studies man as a political animal.
  • Political science is a special social science because it concentrates only on the human relationships which are political in character.
  • Political science is an older science comparatively. It has centuries of history.
• • Difference between Sociology & Psychology
  • Psychology
  • Psychology is the study of individual behavior and mental processes- what occurs in the mind.
  • Sociology
  • Sociology studies society and social groups.
  • Sociology analysis social processes.
  • Sociology studies society form sociological point of view.
  • Psychology
  • Psychology studies behavior of individual in society. Its focus of interest is individual and not the society as such.
  • Psychology concerned with behavior of individuals.
  • Psychology studies the individual’s behavior form the view point of psychological factors involved.

Sub feilds of anthropology

Anthropology is a holistic science that provides the means to understanding the world. Anthropology includes four subfields: cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archaeology.
 Cultural anthropology:
Cultural anthropology is the study of living societies around the world. Cultural anthropologists often live among their subjects in order to gain a deeper understanding of these societies.
 Biological anthropology:
Biological anthropology provides anthropologists with crucial knowledge in the area of paleoanthropology, primatology, forensic anthropology, molecular anthropology, bioarchaeology as well as analysis of modern human health issues.
 Linguistic anthropology:
Linguistic anthropology is the study of culture through language. Linguistic anthropologists study language structure, its evolution, as well as languages that have been dead for hundreds or thousands of years.

 Archaeology:

Archaeology is the study of people, communities and societies through the remains they have left behind. These scientists not only shed light on the amazing events of the past, but supply important information about the day to day activities of cultures long gone.

Relation and diffference between sociology and economics

 Relation between sociology and economics
Sociology and Economics as social sciences have close relations. Relationship between the two is so close that one is often treated as the branch of the other, because society is greatly influenced by economic factors, and economic processes are largely determined by the environment of the society.

Economics deals with the economic activities of man. It deals with production, consumption and distribution of wealth. The economic factors play a vital role in the very aspect of our social life. Total development of individual depends very much on economic factors. Without economic conditions, the study of society is quite impossible. All the social problems are directly connected with the economic conditions of the people. That is why Marshall defines Economics as "on one side the study of wealth and on the other and more important side a part of the study of man."

In the same way Economics is influenced by Sociology. Without the social background the study of Economics is quite impossible. Sociologists have contributed to the study of different aspects of economic organization. Property system, division of labour, occupations etc. are provided by a sociologist to an economist.

 Difference between sociology and economics

(1) Sociology is the study of social relationships or social activities but Economics is the study of only the economic activities of man.
(2) Sociology is abstract in nature whereas Economics is concrete.
(3) The scope of Sociology is much wider than that of Economics.
(4) Sociology is a general social science but Economics is a special social science.
(5) In Sociology society is regarded as the unit of study whereas in Economics the individual is the target of study.
(6) Both Sociology and Economics differ from each other in respect of various methods they use for their study.
(7) Sociology studies man as a social animal but Economics studies man as an economic being.
(8) Sociology is the youngest of all the social sciences but Economics is older than sociology.

Relation and difference between Sociology and anthropology

Relation between Sociology and Anthropology

The relation between sociology and anthropology is widely recognized today. In fact, anthropologist Kroeber pointed out that the two- sciences are twin sisters. Robert Redfied writes that viewing the whole United States, one say that the relations between sociology and anthropology are closer than those between anthropology and political science, which is partly due to greater similarity in ways of work.

Anthropology is a general science like sociology. 'The word anthropology' is derived from two Greek words, 'anthropos' and 'logos' meaning the study of man. More precisely, it is defined by Kroeber as the science of man and his works and behavior. Anthropology is concerned not with particular man but with man in-group with races and peoples and their happenings and doings.

There is a great deal of similarities between anthropology and sociology. A number of subjects include society, culture, family religion, social stratification, etc. For this reason an eminent anthropologist like A.L. Kroeber regards "Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters" Etymologically, anthropology means the study of the science of man. It traces the development of human race, and studies, in particular, the primitive preliterate people and their culture. Anthropologists are sure that anthropology is deeply concerned with the physical and cultural development of human beings from the time of their origin to this day. There cannot be two opinions about the fact that the field of its investigation is very vast.

One of the branches of anthropology, Social Anthropology studies man as a social being. It has been rightly said that 'social anthropology deals with the behavior of man in social situations.' According to some scholars, 'Social anthropology and sociology are in their broad sense, one and the same'. There are others who regard it as a branch of sociology.

Anthropology not only studies the fossil man but also investigates the characteristics of the different culture groups and their changes through the study of language, which the human beings of the pre-literate and historical periods used. All this goes to show that anthropology is a very vast subject and it is deeply concerned with the man and his culture as it developed in the remote past. Dr. S.C. Dube does not find any difference between sociology and anthropology. He thinks that the two disciplines are identical, but in fact, there are some differences between the two disciplines. It is sociology, which concerns itself with the same phenomena, as they exist at present.

Anthropology concentrates on man as he is. On the other hand, sociology analyses man as social animal. It is an indispensable fact that sociologists in their attempt to understand the social phenomena of present times, draw upon the knowledge of the past. Nor can it be denied that they, in their desire to study man and society, make the best use of the invaluable data furnished by anthropological researches. In the same way, the data obtained by sociologists have immediately benefited anthropologists. Thus, there is no use of stressing on the fact that sociology and Anthropology are closely related to each other and are inter-dependent.

Differences between Sociology and Anthropology

Not withstanding their inter-dependence the two sciences differ from each other in many respects. The points of differences are as follows.

(1) The primitive, pre-literate people and their culture from the subject matter of anthropology. The completely human society is the basis of its investigation. It not only studies, the physical characteristics of the human race but also studies the influence itself. On the other hand, sociology takes note of the influence of the human race exerts on social relations, and it deals with people and their culture in the present context. Nor is it all. It focuses the attention of sociologists on some of the particular aspects of society. Thus it is quite obvious that the subject-matter of sociology is not the concern of anthropology. In respect of subject matter, both anthropology and sociology differ from each other.

(2) Anthropology has for its subject matter the small and static culture of people who belong to the pre-literate period. In sharp contrast to anthropological concern with small and static cultures, sociology investigates the culture of society which, to say the least is very vast and dynamic in nature.

(3) It is really curious that sociologists can easily manage with the second-hand informations, while anthropologists cannot hut depend upon the first-hand knowledge.

(4) Anthropology is concerned with the past where as sociology is concerned with the present. The future of social institutions does not worry anthropologists, because anthropology is not at all concerned with it but it cannot be said about sociology, as it is deeply concerned with the future of social institutions. Social Anthropology, which is the branch of anthropology proper, makes on investigation of ancient human societies and pre-historic archaeology, the other branch studies the ancient cultures. Sociology and Anthropology alone studies the human society as it exists,

(5) Finally, Sociology and Anthropology have dissimilar methods since their subject matter differs. It has been seen that sociologists in their study of man and society make use of statistics, documentary evidences, etc. The anthropologists’ especially social anthropologists use functional methods in their study of the primitive man and his culture. It is not possible for an anthropologists to complete his research project without living with those people of a particular society whom he has chosen for his investigation. On the whole anthropology employees the methods used by natural sciences, while sociology uses the methods of social science.